Individual Behaviour in the Control of Danger

Andrew R. Hale
Safety Science Group, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands*

A. Ian Glendon
Organisational Behaviour and Applied Psychology Division, Aston University,
Birmingham, United Kingdom*

* at the date of publication (1987)

This book is now out of print but you can download it from this page as a set of PDF files. Click on each chapter title below to download a PDF of that whole chapter. Because of the size of the book it is not available as a single file. The contents for each chapter are shown as a guide.

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTER 1 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND CONTROL OF DANGER

1.1 IMAGES OF THE INDIVIDUAL
1.2 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH
      1.2.1 Systems thinking
1.3 DEFINITIONS OF DANGER
      1.3-1 The meaning of harm
      1.3.2 What is 'potential'
      1.3.4 A working definition
1.4 MODELS OF HARM PROCESS
      1.4.1 The normal state and system design
      1.4.2 Deviation and controls
      1.4.3 Metastable state
      1.4.4 Unstable event
      1.4.5 Damaging event
      1.4.6 Stabilisation
1.5 THE HARM PROCESS AND THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
1.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

PART I THE STRUCTURE OF BEHAVIOUR

CHAPTER 2 MODELS OF BEHAVIOUR IN THE FACE OF DANGER.

2.1 MODELS IN BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE
      2.1.1 Accident proneness model
      2.1.2 Engineering models
      2.1.3 Interactive models
2.2 A SYNTHESIS
      2.2.1 The model: description
      2.2.2 Use of the model

CHAPTER 3 DANGER IN ROUTINE TASKS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 'ABSENT MINDS'
3.3 THE CONTROL OF ROUTINE ACTIONS
      3.3.1 Types of error
      3.3.2 Predisposing conditions
      3.3.3 Frequency of different error types
3.4 DESIGN FOR ROUTINE TASKS
      3.4.1 'Default values', stereotypes, illusions and other distortions of perception
      3.4.2 Overload on attention and memory
      3.4.3 Unexpected external signals
      3.4.4 Signals to change levels of operation: relationship to the Rasmussen 3 level model
3.5 INSISTENT WARNINGS AND ESCAPE FROM IMMINENT DANGER
      3.5.1 Innate and learned response to emergencies
      3.5.2 Panic
3.6 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 4 HAZARD DETECTION

4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2 ALERTING TO DANGER
      4.2.1 Detection of deviations
      4.2.2 Detecting deviations in dynamic situations
      4.2.3 Enhancing feedback on deviations
4.3 THE OBVIOUSNESS OF DANGER AND THE USE OF WARNINGS
      4.3.1 Hazard symptoms and false alarms
      4.3.2 Clarity, conspicuity and comprehensibility
      4.3.3 Warnings and personal protective equipment
4.4 INSPECTION AND HAZARD SEEKING
      4.4.1 A field study of 'naive' inspectors
      4.4.2 Hazards according to the experienced operator
      4.4.3 Hazard spotting by 'safety' personnel
      4.4.4 Inspection as an active process
      4.4.5 Inspection strategies
4.5 PREDICTING DANGER
4.6 KNOWLEDGE OF CAUSAL NETWORKS
4.7 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 5 DANGER LABELLING AND ASSESSMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
      5.1.1 labelling
      5.1.2 Acceptability
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS AND 'SUBJECTIVE RISK'
      5.2.1 Expressed preference research
      5.2.2 Other research approaches
      5.2.3 Structure of the section
5.3 MAJOR HAZARD ASSESSMENT FACTORS
      5.3.1 Choice to enter and leave danger
      5.3.2 Controllability
      5.3.3 Foreseeability
      5.3.4 Vividness, dreadfulness and severity
5.4 HAZARD ASSESSMENT FACTORS AND TYPES OF HARM
5.5 DIFFERENCES IN GLOBAL ATTITUDES TO HAZARDOUS ACTIVITIES
5.6 CONCLUSION
      5.6.1 The classification of hazards
      5.6.2 The place of probability
5.7 EXPECTATIONS AND BIASES; JUDGEMENT IN UNCERTAINTY
      5.7.1 Probability assessment: absolute and relative
      5.7.2 Biases and errors
      5.7.3 Effects of the biases
5.8 CONCLUSIONS: STRATEGIES OF JUDGEMENT

CHAPTER 6 SAFETY AND RESPONSIBILITY

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 OPTIONS FOR ACTION
6.3 FIELD STUDIES OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY
      6.3.1 Construction site supervisors
      6.3.2 Financial responsibility
      6.3.3 Responsibility for safety and accident prevention
      6.3.4 Responsibility in other environments
      6.3.5 Communication and intervention in the safety of others
      6.3.6. Discussion
6.4 ATTRIBUTION
      6.4.1 Origins of attribution theory
      6.4.2 Attribution of cause and responsibility
      6.4.3 The meaning of 'responsibility'
      6.4.4 Attributing responsibility for own and other's actions
      6.4.5 Locus of control: externals v internals
6.5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 7 SAFE PLANS AND PROCEDURES

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 ACTION TRESHOLDS
7.3 HEURISTICS, PROCEDURES AND PROBLEM SOLVING
7.4 AVAILABILITY OF PLANS
7.5 WEIGHING PROS AND CONS
7.6 MONITORING AND FEEDBACK
7.7 COORDINATION OF ERRORS
7.8 CONCLUSIONS AND PREVENTIVE ACTIONS

PART I AFTERWORD

PART II INFLUENCING BEHAVIOUR

CHAPTER 8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 PRINCIPLES OF INTERVENTION
8.3 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
8.4 STRUCTURE OF PART II
8.5 EVALUATION OF BEHAVIOUR CHANGE AND SAFETY

CHAPTER 9 LEARNING FROM MISTAKES

9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 FEEDBACK AND MONITORING
      9.2.1 Feedback in routinetasks
      9.2.2 Isolation from feedbacks
      9.2.3 Behaviour modification
9.3 LEARNING AND TRAINING
      9.3.1 What needs to be learned
      9.3.2 How does learning occur? Learning theory
      9.3.3 Sources of learning
      9.3.4 Personal experience: accidents and near misses
      9.3.5 Social modelling
      9.3.6 Development of hazard perception and safe behaviour in young people
      9.3.7 Formal training in safety
9.4 RISK COMPENSATION
      9.4.1 Introduction
      9.4.2 Risk compensation or homeostasis theory
      9.4.3 Predictions from the theory
      9.4.4 Research evidence
      9.4.5 Conclusions

CHAPTER 10 MOTIVATION AND SAFETY

10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
10.3 VALUES, MOTIVES AND BALANCE
      10.3.1 Theories of motivation
      10.3.2 Motivation and decision
10.4 MOTIVATION AND SAFETY
      10.4.1 Fear and horror or danger and excitement
      10.4.2 Control and self image
      10.4.3 Effort, trouble and convenience
      10.4.4 Job interest
      10.4.5 Danger money, piecework and safety incentives
      10.4.6 Social factors
      10.4.7 Conclusions
10.5 MOTIVATION CHANGE
      10.5.1 Posters, film and informational campaigns
      10.5.2 Laws, rules and disciplinary measures
10.6 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 11 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND SELECTION

11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 SELECTION, TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE
11.3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ACCIDENT LIABILITY
      11.3.1 Accident liability and hazard exposure
      11.3.2 Research results
      11.3.3 From problem to prevention
11.4 EXPLAINING ACCIDENT PRONENESS
      11.4.1 Accident proneness and accident classification
      11.4.2 Theoretical and practical considerations
11.5 FACTORS STUDIED
      11.5.1 Demographic variables
      11.5.2 Physical and physiological factors
      11.5.3 Psychophysical factors
      11.5.4 Psychological factors
11.6 CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 12 SAFETY BY DESIGN

12.1 INTRODUCTION
      12.1.1 Automation and allocation of functions
      12.1.2 Automatic warning systems on trains
12.2 ORGNISATION OF THE CHAPTER
12.3 DESIGN OF PLANT, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, TOOLS AND BUILDINGS
      12.3.1 Inherent dangers
      12.3.2 Information intake
      12.3.3 Warnings of danger and deviation
      12.3.4 Design for error tolerance
      12.3.5 Standardisation, stereotypes and workload
      12.3.6 Anthropometrics and comfort (chapters 7,10,11
      12.3.7 Misue and defeating (chapters 7,10,11
      12.3.8 Conclusion
12.4 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
      12.4.1 Distraction
      12.4.2 Fatigue, overload and arousal
      12.4.3 Physical environment: heat, light, noise
      12.4.4 Stress
12.5 DESIGN OF WORK PROCEDURES
      12.5.1 Procedures and crosstalk
      12.5.2 Allocation of responsibility and communication
      12.5.3 Decision support systems
      12.5.4 Accessibility of procedures
      12.5.5 Conclusions
12.6 DESIGN OF ORGANISATIONS
12.7 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 13 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 SYSTEM DESIGN AND THE HUMAN AS CONTROLLER
      13.2.1 System controllability
      13.2.2 The workings of the human controller
13.3 FUTURE OF THE MODEL
      13.3.1 Status and boundaries
      13.3.2 Research needs
13.4 IMPLICATION FOR PRACTICE
      13.4.1 The approach to prevention
      13.4.2 Analysis of health and safety problems
      13.4.3 Design
      13.4.4 Selection, training and motivation
      13.4.5 Organisation and evaluation

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Industrial Safety Series - Volume 2 (1987)
ISBN 0-444-42838-0 (Vol.2)
ISBN 0-444-42749-X (Series)

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